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Quick Facts: Middle English
| Native Name | Middel Englisch |
|---|---|
| Speakers | No living native speakers β spoken approximately 1100β1500 CE |
| Language Family | Indo-European, West Germanic branch |
| Writing System | Latin (with some runic survivals) |
| Primary Regions | England, parts of Scotland and Wales; English settlements in Ireland |
| Official In | Kingdom of England (historically) |
| ISO Code | enm |
About Middle English
Middle English is the form of the English language spoken and written in England from approximately 1100 CE β following the profound transformations wrought by the Norman Conquest of 1066 β to about 1500 CE, when the transition to Early Modern English (the language of Shakespeare) was essentially complete. It occupies a fascinating middle ground: distinctly recognizable as English to a modern reader in a way that Old English is not, yet sufficiently different in grammar, vocabulary, and spelling that unaided comprehension requires study. Middle English is the language of Geoffrey Chaucer, William Langland, the Pearl Poet, and the Gawain Poet β writers whose work forms the foundation of the English literary tradition as it is most broadly recognized. The Norman Conquest transformed Middle English profoundly: thousands of French words entered the language across every domain of elevated discourse β law, religion, government, cuisine, fashion β creating the characteristic dual-register vocabulary of English where Germanic words (ask, begin, child, house) coexist with French-derived synonyms of often more elevated connotation (inquire, commence, infant, mansion).
History and Origins
Middle English emerged from the collision of Old English with Norman French following the conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066. The Norman aristocracy spoke Anglo-Norman French; the clergy used Latin; the common people spoke Old English. Over the following two centuries, a new mixed language emerged β Middle English β that retained the Germanic grammatical structure of Old English while absorbing an enormous French vocabulary and simplifying the complex Old English case system almost entirely. The 12th and 13th centuries saw Middle English gradually replace Latin and Anglo-Norman as the language of literature and eventually of law and government. The development of a London-based written standard in the 14th century β associated particularly with Chaucer β created a prestige dialect that influenced subsequent writing across the country. The introduction of printing by William Caxton in 1476 accelerated the standardization of spelling and the emergence of Early Modern English from the Middle English period.
Writing System
Middle English had no standardized spelling β each scribe wrote according to regional dialect and personal convention, creating enormous orthographic variation across manuscripts from different times and places. A word might be spelled differently in the same manuscript on the same page. This makes reading Middle English manuscripts challenging even for specialists who know the language well. Modern editions of Middle English texts typically normalize spelling to a conventional form. Middle English retained some Old English letters (the thorn ΓΎ and eth Γ° for "th" sounds) before they were eventually replaced by "th," and the letter yogh Θ for sounds that became "y," "gh," or "z" in Modern English. The diversity of Middle English dialects β Northern, East Midlands, West Midlands, Southern, Kentish β is also visible in manuscripts and requires scholars to identify and adjust for dialectal features.
Phonology and Pronunciation
Middle English phonology underwent dramatic changes during the period, culminating in the Great Vowel Shift β one of the most remarkable sound changes in the history of any language β which began in the late 14th century and was largely complete by 1700. The Great Vowel Shift raised every long vowel in English by one position in the mouth, turning the long "a" (as in modern "father") into the long "e" sound, the long "e" into the long "i" sound, and so on, with the highest vowels diphthongizing. This explains why English spelling no longer reflects English pronunciation as consistently as other European languages: the spelling was largely fixed before the Great Vowel Shift completed, preserving pre-shift spellings for post-shift pronunciations. Middle English also had sounds that Modern English has lost, including a velar fricative (as in Scottish "loch") spelled "gh" that survives in silent form in words like "night," "light," and "daughter."
Famous Texts and Cultural Works
Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (c. 1387β1400) is the supreme work of Middle English literature β a framed collection of stories told by pilgrims traveling to Canterbury whose extraordinary range of genre, tone, and social observation anticipates the novel form by centuries. William Langland's Piers Plowman (c. 1370β1390) is a complex allegorical dream vision addressing social justice and Christian salvation that is the other great monument of 14th century Middle English poetry. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (late 14th century, author unknown) is the most celebrated work of the Alliterative Revival β a masterpiece of Arthurian romance in the West Midlands dialect. The Wycliffe Bible (c. 1382β1395), the first complete English Bible translation, was produced under the influence of John Wycliffe and played a significant role in making scriptural text accessible to English speakers outside the clergy.
How to Learn Middle English Today
Middle English is studied in university courses on English literature, medieval studies, and historical linguistics. For students of English literature, the practical goal is usually reading Chaucer and other 14th century authors in the original. The grammatical challenge is more modest than Old English β Middle English has largely abandoned the complex Old English case system β but the orthographic variation, unfamiliar vocabulary (both French-derived and Germanic words no longer in use), and the phonological changes of the period require systematic study. Geoffrey Chaucer's General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales is the standard starting text for Middle English study. The Riverside Chaucer is the standard scholarly edition, and the Harvard Geoffrey Chaucer Website provides online access to texts with glossaries and pronunciation guides.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the difference between Old English, Middle English, and Modern English?
Old English (5thβ12th century) is essentially incomprehensible to Modern English speakers without study β it has a full case system, three grammatical genders, and very different vocabulary. Middle English (12thβ15th century) is difficult but partially recognizable, as in Chaucer. Early Modern English (15thβ17th century, as in Shakespeare) is accessible with some effort. Modern English begins roughly with the 18th century. Each transition was gradual rather than sudden.
Who wrote in Middle English?
The major Middle English writers include Geoffrey Chaucer (Canterbury Tales, Troilus and Criseyde), William Langland (Piers Plowman), the anonymous Gawain Poet (Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl), John Gower (Confessio Amantis), and John Lydgate. The mystery and morality plays of the period, including the York Cycle and Everyman, are also significant Middle English dramatic texts.
What was the effect of the Norman Conquest on English?
The Norman Conquest of 1066 was the most transformative event in the history of the English language. Norman French became the language of the court, aristocracy, and law, while English continued as the vernacular of the common people. Over two to three centuries, the languages merged into Middle English, which inherited Germanic grammar from Old English and thousands of French vocabulary items β creating the characteristic dual-register vocabulary of Modern English.
What is the Great Vowel Shift?
The Great Vowel Shift was a major change in English pronunciation that began in the late 14th century and was largely complete by 1700. All the long vowels of Middle English shifted upward in the mouth, and the highest vowels became diphthongs. This explains why English spelling does not consistently reflect pronunciation today: spelling was largely standardized before the shift completed, preserving pre-shift forms for post-shift sounds.